Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to illustrate the ways in which media literacy can be in integrated into a pre-service teacher education program within a framework of critical pedagogy. It is with immense pleasure and excitement that I am able to incorporate critical media literacy into our teacher education program. Prior to today, our pre-service teachers (PTs) read, listened to speakers, participated in service learning and field experiences, and engaged in discussion with their peers and instructors.
The program is a strong one, but I feel that it has greater potential. As a result of material learned in this course, I believe that our program can increase its efforts to develop PTs/teachers who will create a more equitable society, promote social justice, and embrace personal and professional accountability for their roles in challenging cultural domination in the classroom and in society.
For the past couple of years I have had the privilege of teaching in an undergraduate professional education program. The majority of our student population is White, middle class, and hail from rural communities. Since my arrival to this institution one of my assigned courses has been Human Relations in a Multicultural Society, one of the first in a series of courses preparing PTs for careers in secondary education.
During this course I expect that PTs will have opportunities to reflect on their own identities, including beliefs, attitudes, skills, and cultures. In so doing they will become more in tune with themselves as cultural beings and become more aware of what this implies with respect to their teaching. Additionally, it is hoped that students will continue to develop as critical pedagogues, exploring diverse cultures, questioning their own epistemologies, and examining the ways in which cultural domination influences their daily lives.
Why Critical Media Literacy?
Though this practice may be new to our program (as far as I am aware), it is not a new concept. "Critical media pedagogy provides students and citizens with the tools to analyze critically how texts are constructed and in turn construct and position viewers and readers. It provides tools so that individuals can dissect the instruments of cultural domination, transform themselves from objects to subjects, from passive to active. Thus critical media literacy is empowering, enabling students to become critical producers of meanings and texts, able to resist manipulation and domination (Kellner, 2000).”
The critical media literacy component which I plan to incorporate into our teacher education program will aim to develop more critical and discriminating individuals and teachers. PTs will work toward becoming sensitive to the politics of representations of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, class, language, and other cultural differences in order to foster critical thinking and enhance democratization (http://www.21st centuryschools.com /Media_Literacy/ Media_Literacy_ Resources.htm).
Critical media literacy will not only open many PTs’ eyes to inequities, stereotypes, and power structures within our society, but it will provide a platform upon which they may partake in what may be a new type of thinking for some—dialogical thinking. This type of thinking will require students to participate in exchanges between frames of reference. They will seek to understand different perspectives, see others as partners, and develop emotional bonds with those with whom they interact (http://www.earthethics.com/polemicalanddialogical.htm). In addition PTs will seek and promote truths (which may differ from those familiar to them), open-mindedness, empathy, autonomy and self-criticism. In Robert Ennis’ "A Concept of Critical Thinking” (1962), a checklist for critical thinking includes the following:
- distinguishing between verifiable facts and value claims
- determining the reliability of a claim or source
- determining the accuracy of a statement distinguishing between warranted and unwarranted claims
- detecting bias identifying stated and unstated assumptions
- recognizing logical inconsistencies
- determining the strength of an argument
In addition to referencing this checklist, PTs will focus on the following statements, as they view, listen to, and/or participate in the creation of media tools.:
What story will be told (or reported)?
From whose perspective will it be presented? How will it be filmed (camera placement, movement, framing)? How will it be edited? What sort of music will be used, if any? Whose voice will we hear? What will the intended message be?
Questions surrounding the media's point of view will lead us to ask:
Who has created the images? Who is doing the speaking? Whose viewpoint is not heard? From whose perspective does the camera frame the events? Who owns the medium? What is our role as spectators in identifying with, or questioning what we see and hear (National Film Board of Canada, briefing notes for the Government Film Commissioner, 1993-1994)?
Challenges…Why we need Critical Media Literacy in My Teacher Education Program
The first day of the semester that I taught the Human Relations class, I realized that everyone was on the same page with reference to our exposure to/interest in diversity. Over the course of the term I realized that “spoon-feeding”—not watering down—issues on diversity seemed to be the best approach in the PTs process of acknowledging and accepting different cultures and lifestyles. I realized that attempts of critiquing biases that may shape their pedagogical processes, specifically as they related to epistemological perspectives, were often viewed as negative or disruptive (hooks, 1994 as cited in Beach, 2007). I knew that restructuring the curriculum—including the addition of different activities—would make the learning process more meaningful for the PTs.
At the end of a semester, I never truly know what students have internalized and/or the extent to which they have transformed. Although they self report in pre- and post-course assessments, and write reflective pieces throughout the semester, that remains to be seen by the extent to which students do or do not get absorbed into the traditional culture once they are teaching, away from the university influence (Aaronsohn, 1994). This, too, is something I intend to investigate in the coming years.
Based on studies which indicate that the media has a tremendous impact on people (Torres and Mercado, 2006), ignoring its influence on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of PTs would be remiss. According to Gerbner’s (1997) (as cited in Torres & Mercado, 2006) “cultivation theory,” myths (ideological diversity, objectivity, and political neutrality, for example) presented by the media are cultivated through propaganda to maintain control over viewers’ minds (Torres and Mercado, 2006). Images and ideas projected appear to represent dominant culture “normalcy,” and for this reason often remain unquestioned with respect to representations of diversity. In essence, like the dominant culture of schools and their curricula, the media trains people to not question the content they receive (Chomsky, 2000a as cited in Torres and Mercado, 2006). Hence, students (secondary school) are at a tremendous disadvantage when it comes to being critical thinkers about the world in which they live, if their only sources are traditional education and the media.
Corporate media in the classroom—for example, Channel One—influences the ways in which students see themselves and the identities to which they aspire. According to Dorfman (1983, as cited in Torres & Mercado, 2006) “secret education” is the unconscious impact of the media entertainment on people:
Industrially produced fiction has become the primary shaper of our emotions and our intellect in the twentieth century. Although these stories are supposed to merely entertain us, they constantly give us secret education. We are not only taught certain types of violence, the latest fashion and sex roles by TV, movies, magazines, and comic strips; we are also taught how to succeed, how to but, how to love, how to conquer, how to forget the past and suppress the future. We are taught more than anything else, how not to rebel. (xi)
Furthermore, people must be educated to comprehend the power and politics of the media (Chomsky, 1999 as cited in Beach). This is part of a democratic education, and part of the education that PTs in our program should experience and be capable of delivering to their students. People should not take as truth everything they consume in the media. As long as students are media consumers, they need to be critical consumers (Buckingham as cited in Torres and Mercado, 2006). How do they become critical consumers? They learn from their teachers!
It is the role of teachers to inform their students about the media’s hidden agenda, to develop critical perspectives, and to seek out alternate information sources. In addition, teachers can present their students with strategies for investigating who controls their local TV, newspapers, and other news sources. By making profits a priority over service to the public, the media continues to mistreat and misinform the general public. It is crucial that critical media literacy be incorporated into teacher education programs as part of the core curriculum (Torres and Mercado, 2006). Let us now turn to how this can evolve into practice.
Those Things You Do…or How to Use Critical Media Literacy to Foster the Growth of 21st Century Critical Thinkers
In this section I will present a variety of activities that focus on challenging dominant mainstream ideologies in the media which depict traditionally marginalized populations in a negative light. Extending the framework of critical race theory, it is necessary the teacher educators create, recreate, and recover knowledge in communities of color (Solorzano and Yasso, 2001) and other diversities. This is one way that PTs, and the teachers they will become, can better identify stereotypical/limited portrayals of diverse populations, normalization of the dominant culture, and be prepared to challenge these images and the beliefs they foster.
Because many Whites—the majority of my university’s PT population—do not see themselves in racial (Dalton, 1995 as cited in Beach) or other cultural terms, it is crucial that teacher educators bring to the forefront of class discussions and activities ways we self identify and ways in which stereotypes, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors develop about diverse groups are formed. These are the desired goals for students and teachers. In our classrooms, it is imperative that we examine media (including textbooks), professional, and artistic images for the ways in which they depict people of color (Solarzano and Yasso, 2001) and other diverse groups. In the same vein, they must be at the center our research and curriculum. bell hooks states that “The issue is not freeing ourselves from representations. It’s really about being enlightened witnesses when we watch representations (bell hooks, as cited in Beach, p. 50).
The following activities will be incorporated into my curriculum as a way for PTS to identify stereotyping/labeling in television programs,videos, film, and the news, and the influence they have on our beliefs and actions.
Activity A: Analysis of Media Representations: Students will critically analyze media presentations in order to identify language, images, and patterns that operate to construct accounts of reality meant to inform the way we see diverse (non-traditional) members of our communities. In particular, students will (Beach, 2007):
1. Select certain groups/events to study (for the purposes of our class, options would include but not be limited to diverse ethnic, language, gender, sexual orientation, and ability populations, etc.).
2. Identify patterns or similar images in the representation found in the portrayals. Examples might include Mexicans not working/being lazy, or poor Whites living in trailer parks. By accessing 5.5.1-3 on http://www.teachingmedialiteracy.com, PTs can explore the ways in which the meanings of images require us to make intertextual links, and how this can be applied to their own classroom teaching.
3. Examine how concepts and language are used to represent topics or issues. For instance, what types of words to we think of when we think of the hip-hop culture? Are the associated with positive or negative connotations? How so? How do our language choices in the classroom color our (and students’) views of particular populations and/or topics?
4. Conduct content analysis of representations. PTs can create codes or categories for analyzing the number of times certain groups or phenomena occur in prime-time programming or newscasts. Specific techniques for conducting this type of research are found on the teachingmedialiteracy website (5.5.12-15). In addition, students would reflect on how Gramsci’s theory of White hegemony (teachingmedialiteracy website (5.8e.5)) applies to the perpetuation of Whites’ experiences as the norm, and those of people of color being presented as “other.”
5. Finally, PTs would create counter-representations of the group/groups identified in their studies. PTs will need to be mindful that the “realities” they construct may also function to create a common or shared culture (as is the case with media representations) and that they should be attentive to this when considering and creating their texts. Acceptable formats would include powerpoints, digital scrapbooks, websites, blogs, wikis, or others receiving instructor approval.
Activity B: Media Ethnography Studies: I enjoyed and learned from the ethnographic study I did for this class. That is one of the reasons I would include it in the curriculum for my Human Relations course. Twenty-first century students are bombarded with images and language in magazines, advertising, film, television, radio, and the internet. This content, and the ways in which they interact with it are an important piece in understanding the values, beliefs, and behaviors that students bring to the classroom. It is important that PTs have the opportunity to investigate how forums such as social networking sites, chat rooms, and music/fan clubs influence the way people see or present themselves, and the implications for how they interpret/construct interactions in the real world.
Steps for conducting the ethnography would include:
1. Choose one type of media involvement
a. Television or film viewing
b. Participate in chat rooms or fan club activities
c. Response to popular music, or
d. Participate in a media even (concert, etc.)
2. PTs will obtain consent for participation from subjects of study
3. PTs will interview, note-take, and/or record conversations for data collection
4. PTs will analyze their data with respect to subjects’ perspectives, attitudes, engagement, and social context
5. PTs will design ways in which their students’ knowledge, activities, and interests can be incorporated into their own classrooms
To assist with this project, PTs will reference the sample media ethnographies at the www.teachingmedialiteracy.com website (6.3.13-15).
Activity C: Digital Media production: This type of activity requires that students invest their time, ideas, and critical thinking skills into creating alternate constructions of “reality.” It gives them an opportunity to step out of the role of passive consumer and into the position of engaged, active producer. Following an informational/tutorial session (found on Digital Directors Guild at http://ddguild.org , as cited in Swan & Hofer, 2006) on Movie Maker software (imovie, etc.), students will follow a four-step organizational framework (Bull & Thompson, as cited in Swan & Hofer, 2006) as follows:
1. Analyze media messages: PTs view messages from a critical consumer stance, relying on Hobbs’ (Hobbs, 1997 as cited in Swan & Hofer) five concepts about media literacy (All messages are constructions, messages are not representations of social reality, individuals negotiate meanings by interacting with messages, messages have political, economic, social, and aesthetic purposes, and forms of communication have unique characteristics) (Hobbs, 1997 as cited in Swan & Hofer)
2. Acquire resources: Using various media sources PTs identify issues and techniques used to promote a particular viewpoint (or subtle message). PTs gather images from website clips, and/or by using their own/the school’s digital recording equipment.
3. Create a statement: PTs create a draft of a message (similar to a PSA) that conveys the original material in the media message (step #1), but with their own socio-political message. The final draft is shared among PTs with Microsoft Word’s electronic revision tools, so that feedback can be provided and ideas shared.
4. Communicate a message: Using Movie Maker software, PTs create a final 45-second product. (Longer than some 2009 Super Bowl commercials!).
5. Reflections: PTs reflect on the videos they create and view, and the process of video-making and technology-use in promoting social and political agendas.
Activity D: Critical Approaches to Media Texts: Throughout the course of the semester, PTs will be encouraged to challenge the status quo practices. This includes taking a critical stance in responding to media texts (Beach, 2006). PTs need to go beyond simply critiquing the media to becoming proactive in the ways they confront status-quo practices (Giroux, 2004) that reflect biases. Writing letters to advertising companies, news directors, and television stations are examples of ways PTs and teachers (with their students) can engage in promoting more accurate representations of diverse populations in the media.
After learning about the different critical approaches/lenses used in critiquing media, PTs will choose one to study advertising, film, or television. The choices included (numbers in parenthesis identify corresponding website information) are presented in A Web-linked Guide to Resources and Activities (possibly one of the most practical resources I have encountered for my teacher education program, to date!):
a. Audience analysis (4.3.1-15): How audiences are positioned to adopt desired responses, beliefs, and practices (Abercrombie & Longhurst, 1998 as cited in Beach)
b. Semiotic analysis (4.4.3-9): How the meaning of images in media texts is constituted by cultural or ideological codes (Beach, 2007)
c. Narrative analysis (film-4.4.21-23, magazine advertising (4.4.27-32): How narrative structures or patterns are used to develop story structures (Beach, 2007)
d. Post-structural analysis (4.5.1-6): How language influences the media and audiences’ views (Beach, 2007)
e. Critical Discourse analysis (4.4.4-11): How ideologies impact the ways in which people define themselves and their worlds (Beach, 2007)
f. Feminist analysis (4.8.14-31): How media representations are based on myths and cultural constructions
g. Post-modern analysis (4.9.4-9): How narratives challenge traditional depictions of events and experiences, and
h. Post-colonial analysis ( 4.10.1-2): How colonial or imperialist conceptions of the world are illustrated in literature and the media
This project encourages PTs to identify and interpret ideological and political assumptions which operate in various media domains. The activity culminates in a project where PTs reflect on how texts—viewed through one of these lenses--affect their own beliefs and attitudes, and the ways in which they view people and events in their world (Beach, 2007).
In the process of studying media representations and exploring their own identity issues and those of others, PTs will participate in a highly interactive manner with their instructor and their classmates. Important components of this course include understanding one’s own perspectives, becoming informed about those of others, and determining what action to take to educate in a less-biased, more knowledgeable fashion. For this reason, PTs would use Desire2Learn (similar to Tappedin.org and Moodle.org, used at our university (and others listed in Beach (p. 17)) to participate in group sessions, chat, and discussion forums.
Creating a social forum for PTs to spotlight their work, receive feedback, and engage in conversation with fellow scholars will be an integral part of the learning and teaching experience. It will be critical for me to remember that the better structure and support I provide for activities/assignments, the more likely PTs are to produce higher quality products (Beach, 17). I believe that our university contracts with a particular social forum we use (Desire2Learn). However, if this is not the case, I would be interested in using Tappedin.org, as I like several of the features highlighted (receiving transcripts of students’ discussions and the ability to share and reflect upon them with students).
My goal is to incorporate as many of these activities into next fall’s curriculum as is feasible. With respect to this undertaking, I am primarily concerned that PTs engage in critical reflective experiences ((Tillman & Trier, 2007) through developing/expanding their critical media literacy skills. It is my hope that this charge will be accepted wholeheartedly, embraced, and result in a transformative experience that impacts the lives of PTs and future students for generations to come.
References
Aaronsohn, E. (1994). Piaget and Columbus: A Post-Hole Did into Decentering (A Qualitative Study in Progress). Report. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED374103). Retrieved from http://proquest.umi.com/pdqlink.
Abercrombie, N. & Longhurst, B. (1998). Audiences: A socio-logical theory of performance and imagination. Thousand Oaks, Ca.: Sage.
Beach, R. (2007). Teachingmedialiteracy.com: A Web-Linked Guide To Resources And Activities. New York: Teachers College Press.
Ennis, R. (1962). A Concept of Critical Thinking. Harvard Educational Review, 32(1), 81-111.
Giroux, H. (2004). The Abandoned Generation: Democracy beyond the culture of fear. New York: Palgrave.
Kellner, D. (2000). Multiple Literacies and Critical Pedagogies. In P.Trifonas (Ed.), Revolutionary Pedagogies - Cultural Politics, Instituting Education, and the Discourse of Theory (pp. 196-2). London: Routledge. Retrieved May 1, 2009, from 21st Century Schools Web site: http://www.21stcenturyschools.com/Media_Literacy/Media_Literacy_Resources.htm
Solarzano, D. & Yosso, T. (2001). From Racial Stereotyping and Deficit Discourse Toward a Critical Race Theory in Teacher Education. Multicultural Education, 9(1), 2-8.
Smith III, J.A. (2008). Retrieved May 1, 2009 from Earth Ethics Web site: http://www.earthethics.com/polemicalanddialogical.htm.
Swan, K. & Hofer, M. (2006). Digital Campaigning: Using the Bill of Rights to Advance a Political Position. Social Studies, 97(5), 208-214.
Tillman, L. & Trier, J. Boston Public as Public Pedagogy: Implications for Teacher Preparation and School Leadership. Peabody Journal of Education, 82(1), 121-149.
Torres, M. & Mercado, M. (2006). The Need for Critical Media Literacy in Teacher Education Core Curricula. Educational Studies: Journal of the American Educational Studies Association, 39(3), 260-282.
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